Writing Your Graduate School Admissions Essay

It should come as no surprise that most applicants do not enjoy drafting their graduate admissions essay. Writing a statement that tells a graduate admissions committee all about you and can potentially make or break your application is stressful. Take a different perspective, however, and you will find that your admissions essay is not as daunting as it seems. What is its Purpose? Your graduate school application provides the admissions committee with a great deal of information about you that cannot be found elsewhere in your graduate application. The other parts of your graduate school application tell the admissions committee about your grades (i.e., transcript), your academic promise (i.e., GRE scores), and what your professors think of you (i.e., recommendation letters). Despite all of this information, the admissions committee does not learn much about you as an individual. What are your goals? Why are you applying to graduate school? With so many applicants and so few slots, its critical that graduate admissions committees learn as much as possible about applicants so as to ensure that they choose students who best fit their program and are most likely to succeed and complete a graduate degree. Your admissions essay explains who you are, your goals, and the ways in which you match the graduate program to which you are applying. What Do I Write About? Graduate applications often ask that applicants write in response to specific statements and prompts. Most prompts ask applicants to comment on how their backgrounds have shaped their goals, describe an influential person or experience, or discuss their ultimate career goals. Some graduate programs request that applicants write a more generic autobiographical statement, most often referred to as a personal statement. What is a Personal Statement? A personal statement is a general statement of your background, preparation, and goals. Many applicants find it challenging to write a personal statement because there is no clear prompt to guide their writing. An effective personal statement conveys how your background and experiences have shaped your career goals, how you are well matched to your chosen career and provides insight into your character and maturity. No easy feat. If you are asked to write a generic personal statement, pretend that the prompt instead requires you to discuss how your experiences, interests, and abilities have lead you to your chosen career. Begin Your Admissions Essay by Taking Notes About Yourself Before you write your admissions essay you must have an understanding of your goals and how your experiences to date prepare you for pursuing your goals. A self-assessment is critical to gathering the information you need to write a comprehensive essay. You likely will not (and should not) use all of the information that you gather. Evaluate all of the information you gather and determine your priorities. Most of us have many interests, for example. Decide which are most important to you. As you consider your essay, plan to discuss the information that supports your goals and what is most important to you. Take Notes on the Graduate Program Writing an effective graduate admissions essay requires knowing your audience. Consider the graduate program at hand. What specific training does it offer? What is its philosophy? How well do your interests and goals match the program? Discuss the ways in which your background and competencies overlap with the graduate programs requirements and training opportunities. If youre applying to a doctoral program, take a close look at the faculty. What are their research interests? Which labs are most productive? Pay attention to whether faculty take on students or appear to have openings in their labs. Peruse the department page, faculty pages, and lab pages. Remember That an Admissions Essay is Simply an Essay By this time in your academic career, you have likely written a great many essays for class assignments and exams. Your admissions essay is similar to any other essay you have written. It has an introduction, body, and conclusion. Your admissions essay presents an argument, just as any other essay does. Granted, the argument concerns your capacities for graduate study and the outcome can determine the fate of your application. Regardless, an essay is an essay. Beginning is the Hardest Part of Writing I believe this holds true for all types of writing, but especially for drafting graduate admissions essays. Many writers stare at a blank screen and wonder how to begin. If you search for the perfect opening and delay writing until you find just the right angle, phrasing, or metaphor you may never write your graduate admissions essay. Writers block is common among applicants writing admissions essays. The best way to avoid writers block is to write something, anything. The trick to beginning your essay is to not start at the beginning. Write the parts that feel natural, such as how your experiences have driven your career choices. You will heavily edit whatever you write so dont worry about how you phrase your ideas. Simply get the ideas out. It is easier to edit than write so your goal as you begin your admissions essay is to simply write as much as you can. Edit, Proof, and Seek Feedback Once you have a rough draft of your admissions essay, keep in mind that it is a rough draft. Your task is to craft the argument, support your points, and construct an introduction and conclusion that guides readers. Perhaps the best piece of advice I can offer on writing your admissions essay is to solicit feedback from many sources, especially faculty. You may feel that you have made a good case and that your writing is clear, but if a reader cannot follow it, your writing isnt clear. As you write your final draft, check for common errors. Perfect your essay as best you can and once its submitted congratulate yourself for completing one of the most challenging tasks entailed in applying to graduate school.​

Khalid Ibn El Waleed - 3369 Words

2013 | Leadership | | Cohort Five Mohamed Abd El-Aziz El-behery | [Khalid ibn Al waleed] | I am the pillar of Islam! , I am the Companion of the Prophet! , I am the noble warrior, I’m Khalid bin Al Waleed! | Under supervision of Professor doctor: Ali Mosalam Abstract What an excellent slave of Allah: Khalid Ibn al-Walled, one of the swords of Allah, unleashed against the unbelievers! [Prophet Muhammad (BPUH)], those great words were said by the prophet regarding a great hero and an amazing leader of the Islamic era , about a man that was a true believer , a man who was always using his mind to judge about what is right and what is wrong . This is not biographical study of one of the greatest†¦show more content†¦Khaled before conversion to Islam: On reaching maturity Khalid s main interest became war and this soon reached an obsession. Khalid s thoughts were thoughts of battle; his ambitions were ambitions of victory. His urges were violent and his entire psychological thoughts were about military. He would dream of fighting great battles and winning great victories. Khalid did not participate in the Battle of Badr which was the first battle fought between Muslims and Qurayshites. Khaled first appearance against Muslims was in the Battle of UHUD , he was appointed to lead the right wing (the cavalry ) of the Qurayshites Army ( although he was not the older , ) under the command of Abu Sufyan ( the chief of the clan ) , he showed a great deal of courage and military genius through leading his troops behind the Muslims army. In 627 AD Khaled was a part of Quraish’s campaign against the Muslims, resulting in the Battle of the Trench, Khalid s last battle against Muslims; actually he led his cavalry to cross the trench from the thinnest side. Conversion to Islam: Khalid’s hate for Islam was stimulated from his fathers and his people’s hate , this hate did not deprive him from thinking about Islam and why those Muslims are defending the new religion with their own soles , He

The Role Of The Author Essay Example For Students

The Role Of The Author Essay A central argument in contemporary literary criticism remains to be the role of the author. Many theories approach a text with the intention of completely disregarding the author and solely analyzing the text as it exists. However, there are other theories which see the author as an element of larger consquence. The contribution of the individual to the meaning of a text may alter the affect entirely as Each individual is different, each possesses a unique subjectivity; yet also, paradoxically, each shares a common human nature, (rice and waugh 123). Subjectivity or the personality added by the author to a work is discussed by Julia Kristeva in the piece, A Question of Subjectivity. In this interview, Kristeva approaches the issue of the subject with respect to psychoanalysis. In her study Kristeva links psychosis to literature throught various channels such as the limits of language, the maternal body and the relationship between suffering and creativity. Each of these links can be applied to the sonnets written by Shakespeare thereby providing insight into the author and the text. The relationship between psychoanalyisis of the subject and literature may not be one that is obvious to most people. Kristeva explains that literature exists at the limits of language; the moments where language breaks up in phychosis. Therefore the interpretation of ones speech presupposes that you apply yourself to the meaning of what they say. The thoughts of the author then become crucial to the understanding of the text. Discussing the thoughts of the author leads to the process defined by Kristeva as an instability of the identities of linguistic signs, meaning and the speaker. In Shakespeares sonnet #147 one recognizes his instability as he wavers around sanity and maddness; And frantic mad with evermore unrest; My thoughts and my discourse as madmens are As random from truth vainly expressed: He relates his thoughts and language (discourse) to reflect his state of mind and by doing so, illustrates the role of his own psychosis in his writing. Language therefore cannot function in a world of isolation or as Kristeva explains, no neutral objectivity is possible in descriptions of language at its limits. (p131) One can probe deeper into the psychosis of the author revealing fundamental motivations that drive the author to the limits of language, to poetry. Kristeva goes into great detail discussing the role of the connection to the maternal body where pleasures, including those from literature are a sort of self-eroticism that is indissociable form the experience of the (m)other. (p134) We witness, what seems to be, a complete regression to the maternal connection in sonnet #143; Whilst I, thy babe, chase thee afar behind; But if thou catch thy hope, turn back to me And play the mothers part, kiss me, be kind. Shakespeare is relating his relationship with his lover to the relationship with his mother. This link seems to approach the issue of Shakespeares childhood and his deep and basic impulses or the confrontation inside the oedipal triangle between desire for the mother and the process of loss. (p133) Loss and suffering play a significant role, according to Kristeva, in the process of writing, A writer must at one time or another have been in a situation of loss- of ties, of meaning- in order to write. Shakespeare flaunts his suffering in a number of his sonnets such as sonnet #140, Lest sorrow lend me words, and words express/The Manner of pity-wanting pain. The suffering, as expressed by Shakespeare, relates back to the instablity of language as it is in those moments of instablity that one pushes language to its limits. Kristeva expresses that creativity as well as suffering comprises these moments of instability where language, or the signs of language, or subjectivity are put into process. (p132)

student Essays (1497 words) - National Health Service, Nursing, GROW

On Caring The metaphor of caring is the cautiously attentiveness carefulness of mindfulness of supervising of strangers. The metaphor of caring if the trust, professional, mutual respect, caring, partnership the giving of self to others to regain their trust for us to do our duty as a registered nurse to provide for our own survival while hoping to get a flow of a great amount of people at risk of their survival for us not to be sent home for not being busy with, dying, sick, patients is to truly give us a chance to show ?On Caring? In The book states page 12 second paragraph ?The remarks about the growth of a person which follow are rather general; on a more concrete level there would be differences depending on whether we referred specifically to the growth of a child to maturity, the growth of an immature adult to maturity, or the growth of a mature adult. But that would lead us to have and be ourselves of what nursing school has done for us other than that we would be sole individuals showing our individualism of going through nursing of being sleep deprived, altered mental status, ineffective coping through two years of training to absorbed and add to our growth ?of an immature nursing adult to a mature? to a ?MATURE AND NURSING ADULT? .The inimical expectation of the? nursing school farm? (as in a barricade of sheep?s),because we want to remain individual. But the classroom will teach us a language in common. But the classroom will teach us a method that implicates us with each other in the way we would ca re for our lack of taking care of our health or own primitive life to the lack of fidelity to our distressed counter transference showing patients..But we all will be recognized that we belong to certain creativity the function of or to be a Nurse a ?Registered Nurse.? Some points in the book touched me page 11second paragraph ?The father who goes for the doctor in the middle of the night for his sick child does not experience this as a burden; he is simply caring for the child?. The father is simply caring for his child indeed. The child not knowing what the father had to do to help the child the extra hours of work the danger of being out at night, etc. To be me or a fellow nursing student is to risk of it all on to caring for starngers who might have a disease or even worst to impact us in the life we thought we had a good grip of. In to thinking one would cry when they see a sad movie to only cry. In contrast to when you HEAR a true story you cry even more or hold on to it more that will make an impact on you or will store it in your sub consciousness and repress it until it comes out and you experience burn out and risk of losing your license as a nurse a ?Registered Nurse? because as your first year of nursing school you answered a question o n the final test wrong the definition of compassion. It states on the book page 19?I must understand the others needs and I must be able to respond properly to them, and clearly good intention do not guarantee this?. I can compare it to my first year of nursing at Olive Harvey College I did understand ?The others needs, a particular person? and I did respond properly to them and ?Clearly good intentions do not this?. I laff and would think otherwise. I started my second year of nursing without her my love my life my energy my so called all my girlfriend of 5 long years. It states on the book .To care for someone, I must know many things. I must know for example who the other is what his powers and limitations are, what his needs are and what is conductive of his growth? I DID! I passed my first year I fulfilled my duty to it balancing work, my dream of becoming a Registered Nurse and juggling with my unsuporting girlfriend while holding on my fading

20 Essay Topics on Affluenza The Best Social Psychology Topic

20 Essay Topics on Affluenza The Best Social Psychology Topic The task of writing successfully on any subject matter, regardless of how difficult or technical it might be, depends on your understanding of the subject matter in question as well as your choice of a topic to work on. This happens to be the case for writing essays on social psychology and influenza. Therefore, before providing some of much needed help in choosing a social psychology essay topic on affluenza, here is a brief description of affluenza and the psychology behind it. The word affluenza has derived from the words influenza and affluence. Psychologists describe affluenza as psychological conditions were an unhealthy attachment to wealth affecting an individual’s decision making abilities and his or her emotional intelligence. There are currently multiple studies conducted on the subject of affluenza and these researches have brought out facts that must be included in your essay. Understanding the importance of facts in buttressing your points, we have provided you with 10 facts for a compare and contrast essay on social psychology and affluenza that can be used in developing social psychology essay topics on affluenza in a previous article you must consider reading. 20 essay topics on the social psychology of affluenza: Understanding Affluenza and Its Psychological Effects on Society Affluenza and its Harmful Effects on the Human Psyche Affluenza in the Developed World: An Unhealthy Fascination with Wealth Are Wealthier Regions More Susceptible to Affluenza? Scrutinizing Affluenza and Its Effects on Humans Affluenza: A Real Psychological Problem or a Farce The Consumerism Theory and Affluenza Diagnosis The Role of the Media in Perpetuating an Unhealthy Consumer Culture Pursuing the American Dream in Relation to Affluenza Is Affluenza a Contagious Psychological Condition? Societies Pressures Contributing to Affluenza Rehabilitation and Affluenza: A Working Theory Social Psychology Challenges: Diagnosing and Curing Affluenza Human Errors and the Role Affluenza Plays The Illusion of Success and Reduced Empathy in Wealthy Citizens Fighting Depression through an Understanding of Affluenza Studying the Correlation between Affluenza, Substance Abuse and Addiction Does Affluenza Truly Reduce the Ability to Empathize Discussing Affluenza’s Ability to Cloud Moral Judgment and Decision Making Scrutinizing the Difficulties Associated with Diagnosing Affluenza These are some of the topics you can consider choosing from when tasked with drafting a social psychology essay topic on affluenza. All of these topics focus on the social effects of affluenza, its diagnosis and treatment and how it is perceived by members of the public. As stated earlier, all of these topics will rely heavily on the use of facts to send you message across and you should consider reading up the ‘facts guides’ provided for this essay. Lastly, we intend to lead by example and this will be done using a sample essay with its topic chosen from one of the 20 listed above. This written essay should serve as a guide on how to introduce your topic, develop its body and write a good conclusion covering social psychology on affluenza. Sample Compare and Contrast Essay Affluenza in the Developed World: An Unhealthy Fascination with Wealth The western world has always been fascinated with the lifestyle of the wealthy and this is why programs and movies about wealth tend to attract more viewership than any others. Sadly, social psychology studies have begun to show that this fascination is unhealthy and may have far reaching effects on society as well as the mental health status of affluent individuals. These studies led to the coining of the phrase ‘affluenza’ which is a psychological issue that affect the empathy levels, mental health and emotional balance of its sufferers. Affluenza was coined from the words influenza and affluence and it affects both the young and adult mind in equal measures. There has been a lot of research done to diagnose affluenza and understand its effects on society and one of the results found was that this condition was prevalent in the developed world. Certain triggers have been identified as the reason for affluenza’s polarity in the developed world and some of these include the belief in the ‘American Dream’ concept, as well as the media’s constant glorification of the lifestyle of the rich and famous. These triggers make people constantly work to achieve more wealth while putting everything else on hold, only to discover that acquired wealth did not provide the feelings they have dreamt off.   This then leads to disenchantment and the feeling of unworthiness which are tell-tale signs of affluenza. In more advanced cases, affluenza then leads to depression and a lack of empathy for the average man thereby destroying the fabrics of peaceful co-existence. The pursuit of happiness has also led to other harmful behavioral patterns such as addiction or substance abuse among wealthy individuals. A study focused on high school students’ buttresses this fact for it found out that high school students with wealthy backgrounds tended to keep to themselves and were out of touch with reality. This social disconnect makes the children either act out or turn to substance abuse for companionship. The study also covered affluenza in adults, and it showed that wealthy individuals consumed 27% more alcohol than the less affluent and according to the study, this percentage had nothing to do with the ability of both parties to purchase alcohol. Therefore, affluenza is a psychological situation that affects both the young and old in exactly the same way. The social disconnect and lack of empathy exhibited by people suffering from affluenza can harm our community in diverse ways as the wealthy become more isolated from reality and the general state of life. The lack of emotion shown on the plight of the poor or pushing their needs under the rug can lead to the poor lashing out as seen from the movement to occupy Wall Street. In conclusion, it is important to note that there are several ways to contain affluenza such as the use of rehabilitative techniques but first, society must recognise these issues before it can successfully be dealt with. Here, we come to the end of the essay on social psychology and affluenza. We hope this provides you with a template on how to draft yours using one of the topics above to provide a direction. You can also learn more on how to strike a good compare and contrast essay on social psychology and affluenza by reading the last article in this series. References: Mark, H. (2010). Religious Groups and Affluenza: Further Exploration of the TV-Materialism Link. http://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001context=utk_jourpubs Manchiraju, S. (2013). Materialism in Consumer Behaviour and Marketing managementmarketing.ro/pdf/articole/315.pdf Ahuvia, A. (2008). If Money doesn’t Make Us Happy, Why Do We Act as if it Does?†, Journal of Economic Psychology, Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 491-507. Chang, L. Arkin, M. (2002). Materialism as an Attempt to Cope with Uncertainty, Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 389-406. Kasser, T. (2002). The High Price of Materialism, MIT Press, Cambridge. Martin, W. (2008). Paradoxes of Happiness, Journal of Happiness Studies, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 171-184. O’Neill, J. (1997). The Gilded Ghetto: The Psychology of Affluence, The Affluenza Project, Milwaukee.

An Introduction to Psychological Warfare

An Introduction to Psychological Warfare Psychological warfare is the planned tactical use of propaganda, threats, and other non-combat techniques during wars, threats of war, or periods of geopolitical unrest to mislead, intimidate, demoralize, or otherwise influence the thinking or behavior of an enemy. While all nations employ it, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) lists the tactical goals of psychological warfare (PSYWAR) or psychological operations (PSYOP) as: Assisting in overcoming an enemy’s will to fightSustaining the morale and winning the alliance of friendly groups in countries occupied by the enemyInfluencing the morale and attitudes of people in friendly and neutral countries toward the United States To achieve their objectives, the planners of psychological warfare campaigns first attempt to gain total knowledge of the beliefs, likes, dislikes, strengths, weaknesses, and vulnerabilities of the target population. According to the CIA, knowing what motivates the target is the key to a successful PSYOP.   A War of the Mind As a non-lethal effort to capture hearts and minds, psychological warfare typically employs  propaganda to influence the values, beliefs, emotions, reasoning, motives, or behavior of its targets. The targets of such propaganda campaigns can include governments, political organizations, advocacy groups, military personnel, and civilian individuals. Simply a form of  cleverly â€Å"weaponized† information, PSYOP propaganda may be disseminated in any or all of several ways: Face-to-face verbal communicationAudiovisual media, like television and moviesAudio-only media including shortwave radio broadcasts like those of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty or Radio HavanaPurely visual media, like leaflets, newspapers, books, magazines, or posters More important than how these weapons of propaganda are delivered is the message they carry and how well they influence or persuade the target audience.   Three Shades of Propaganda In his 1949 book, Psychological Warfare Against Nazi Germany, former OSS (now the CIA) operative Daniel Lerner details the U.S. militarys WWII Skyewar campaign. Lerner separates psychological warfare propaganda into three categories:   White propaganda: The information is truthful and only moderately biased. The source of the information is cited.Grey propaganda: The information is mostly truthful and contains no information that can be disproven. However, no sources are cited.Black propaganda: Literally â€Å"fake news,† the information is false or deceitful and is attributed to sources not responsible for its creation. While grey and black propaganda campaigns often have the most immediate impact, they also carry the greatest risk. Sooner or later, the target population identifies the information as being false, thus discrediting the source. As Lerner wrote, Credibility is a condition of persuasion. Before you can make a man do as you say, you must make him believe what you say.† PSYOP in Battle   On the actual battlefield, psychological warfare is used to obtain confessions, information, surrender, or defection by breaking the morale of enemy fighters.   Some typical tactics of battlefield PSYOP include:   Distribution of pamphlets or flyers encouraging the enemy to surrender and giving instructions on how to surrender safelyThe visual â€Å"shock and awe† of a massive attack employing vast numbers of troops or technologically advanced weaponsSleep deprivation through the continual projection of loud, annoying music or sounds toward enemy troopsThe threat – whether real or imaginary – of the use of chemical or biological weaponsRadio stations created to broadcast propagandaRandom use of snipers, booby traps, and improvised explosive devices (IEDs)â€Å"False flag† events – attacks or operations designed to convince the enemy that they were carried out by other nations or groups In all cases, the objective of battlefield psychological warfare is to destroy the morale of the enemy leading them to surrender or defect.   Early Psychological Warfare While it might sound like a modern invention, psychological warfare is as old as war itself. When soldiers the mighty Roman Legions rhythmically beat their swords against their shields they were employing a tactic of shock and awe designed to induce terror in their opponents.   In the 525 B.C. Battle of Peluseium, Persian forces held cats as hostages  in order to gain a psychological advantage over the Egyptians, who due to their religious beliefs, refused to harm cats.   To make the number of his troops seem larger than they actually were, 13th century A.D. leader of the Mongolian Empire Genghis Khan ordered each soldier to carry three lit torches at night. The Mighty Khan also designed arrows notched to whistle as they flew through the air, terrifying his enemies. And in perhaps the most extreme shock and awe tactic, Mongol armies would catapult severed human heads over the walls of enemy villages to frighten the residents. During the  American Revolution, British troops wore brightly colored uniforms in an attempt to intimidate the more plainly dressed troops of George Washington’s Continental Army. This, however, proved to be a fatal mistake as the bright red uniforms made easy targets for Washington’s even more demoralizing American snipers. Modern Psychological Warfare Modern psychological warfare tactics were first used  during World War I. Technological advances in electronic and print media made it easier for governments to distribute propaganda through mass-circulation newspapers. On the battlefield, advances in aviation made it possible to drop leaflets behind enemy lines and special non-lethal artillery rounds were designed to deliver propaganda. Postcards dropped over German trenches by British pilots bore notes supposedly handwritten by German prisoners extolling their humane treatment by their British captors. During  World War II, both Axis and Allied powers regularly used PSYOPS. Adolf Hitlers rise to power in Germany was driven largely by propaganda designed to discredit his political opponents. His furious speeches mustered national pride while convincing the people to blame others for Germany’s self-inflicted economic problems. Use of radio broadcast PSYOP reached a peak in World War II. Japans famous Tokyo Rose broadcast music with false information of Japanese military victories to discourage allied forces. Germany employed similar tactics through the radio broadcasts of Axis Sally.   However, in perhaps the most impactful PSYOP in WWII, American commanders orchestrating the leaking of false orders leading the German high command to believe the allied D-Day invasion would be launched on the beaches of Calais, rather than Normandy, France. The Cold War was all but ended when U.S. President Ronald Reagan publicly released detailed plans for a highly sophisticated â€Å"Star Wars† Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)anti-ballistic missile system capable of destroying Soviet nuclear missiles before they re-entered the atmosphere. Whether any of Reagan’s â€Å"Star Wars† systems could have really been built or not, Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev believed they could. Faced with the realization that the costs of countering U.S. advances in nuclear weapons systems could bankrupt his government, Gorbachev agreed to reopen dà ©tente-era negotiations resulting in lasting nuclear arms control treaties.   More recently, the United States responded to the September 11, 2001 terror attacks by launching the Iraq War with a massive â€Å"shock and awe† campaign intended to break the Iraqi army’s will to fight and to protect the country’s dictatorial leader Saddam Hussein. The U.S. invasion began on March 19, 2003, with two days of non-stop bombing of Iraq’s capital city of Baghdad. On April 5, U.S. and allied Coalition forces, facing only token opposition from Iraqi troops, took control of Baghdad. On April 14, less than a month after the shock and awe invasion began, the U.S. declared victory in the Iraq War.   In todays ongoing  War on Terror, the Jihadist terrorist organization ISIS – the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria- uses social media websites and other online sources to conduct psychological campaigns designed to recruit followers and fighters from around the world.

Exchange Rate Regimes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Exchange Rate Regimes - Essay Example The impact of the inherent volatility and unpredictability of exchange rates on macroeconomic conditions is central to the debate about fixed and flexible exchange rates. Real exchange rates are defined as nominal rates adjusted for price levels. Since prices for individual countries, when expressed in a common currency, are subject to the variability of exchange rates, bilateral real exchange rates based on individual-country price levels may be infected with measurement errors. The use of one reference country, such as the USA, gives rise to asymmetries. By definition, the exchange rate is a relative price of two assets and, like other asset prices, is determined in a forward-looking manner in which expectations concerning the future course of events play a key role. Consequently, exchange rates are very sensitive to the receipt of new information. The large and sustained changes in nominal and real exchange rates were among the most significant developments in the world economy in the 1980s. For example, in the first half of the decade, the US dollar appreciated by about 40 per cent against most other major currencies and then, in the second half of the decade, declined, reversing all the previous appreciation. These changes gave rise to international pressures associated with rapidly changing competitiveness of exports; intervention by central banks in foreign exchange markets; and intense debate regarding the extent to which these exchange rate changes interact with current account imbalances. Some economists feel that conventional measures of economic growth based on the output of goods and services (gross national product) do not satisfactorily reflect economic welfare, arguing that they ignore factors such as pollution and the negative externalities from congestion.